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UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

BULLETIN, 1913, NO. 13 - - - - - - WHOLE NUMBER 521 



REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE 
NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 



ON 



Standards and Tests for 

Measuring the Efficiency of Schools 

or Systems of Schools 

PRESENTED BY THE CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE 

GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1913 



ienograt^^ 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

(Titles abridged.) 
1908. 

No. 1. On, the training of persons to teach agricxilture. L. H. Bailey:. 

No. 2. List of pubiicationa of the United States Bureau of Edueation, 1867-1907. 

No. 3. Bibliography of education for" 1907. J. I. Wyer, jr., and Martha L. Phelps. 

No. 4. Music education iu the United States. Artluu' L. Manchester. 

No. 5. Education in Formosa. Julean H. Arnold, American consul at Tamsui. 

No. 6. The apprenticeship system. Carroll D. Wright. 

No. 7. State school systems, Oct. 1, 1906, to Oct. 1, 1908. E. C. Elliott. 

No. 8. Statistics of State universities, etc., 1907-8. 

1909. 

No. 1. Facilities for study and research in Washington. Arthur T. Hadley. 

No. 2. Adniission of Chinese students to American universities. John Fryer. 

No. 3. Daily meals of school children. Caroline L. Hunt. 

No. 4. The teaching staff of secondary schools. Edv/ard L. Thorndilre. 

No. 5. Statistics of public, society, a,nd school libraries in 1908. 

No. 6, Instruction in the fine and manual arts. Henry Turner Bailey. 

No. 7. Index to the Reports of the Commissioner of Education, 1867-1907. 

No. 8. A teacher's professional library. Classified list of 100 titles. 

No. 9. Bibliography of education for 1908-9. 

No. 10. Education for efficiency in railroad service. J. Shirley Eaton. 

No. 11. Statistics of State un,iversities, etc., 1908-9. 

1910, 

No. 1. Reform in teaching religion in Saxony. Arley Barthlow Show. 

No. 2. State school systems, Oct. 1, 1908, to Oct. 1, 1909. E, C. Elliott. 

No. 3. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, 1867-1910. 

No. 4. The biological stations of Europe. Charles Atwood Kofoid. 

No. 5. American schoolhouses. Fletcher B. Dresslar. 

No. 6. Statistics of State imiversities, etc., 1909-10. 

1911. 

No. 1. Bibliography of science teaching. 

No. 2. Opportimities for graduate study in agriculture. A. C. Monahan. 

No. 3. Agencies for the improvement of teachers in service. William C. Ruediger. 

No, 4. Report of the commission to study the public schools of Baltimore. 

No. 5. Age and grade census of schools and colleges. George Drayton Stray er. 

No. 6. Graduate work in mathematics in imiversities. 

No. 7. Undergraduate work in mathematica in colleges and imiversities. 

No. 8. Examinations in mathematics. 

No. 9. Mathematics in technological schools of collegiate grade. 

No. 10. Bibliography of education for 1909-10. 

No. 11. Bibliography of child study for the years 1908-9. 

No. 12. Training of teachers of elementary and secondary mathematics. 

No. 13. Mathematics in elementary schools. 

No. 14. Provision for exceptional children in the public schools. 

No. 15. The educational system of China as recently reconstructed, H. E. King. 

No. 16. Mathematics in public and private "secondary schools. 

No. 17. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, October, 1911. 

No. 18, Teachers' certificates (laws and regulations). Harlan Updegraff. 

No. 19. Statistics of State universities, etc., 1910-11. 

(Continued on p. 3 of cover,) 



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UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

BULLETIN, 1913. NO. 13 WHOLE NUMBER 521 



REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE 
NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 

ON 

Standards and Tests for 

Measuring the Efficiency of Schools 

or Systems of Schools 

PRESENTED BY THE CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE 

GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 
TEACHERS COLLEGE. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

J913 






v^ %^ 



APR SO 1913 



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STANDARDS AND TESTS FOR MEASURING THE 
EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS OR SYSTEMS OF 
SCHOOLS. 



Educators and laymen have always expressed opinions with 
respect to the efficiency of our schools. In recent years there has 
been developed, along with a refinement in the technique of investi- 
gation in education, a remarkable pubMc interest in the attempts to 
evaluate our educational practice. School inquiries, investigations, 
or surveys have been conducted, or are planned, in a great many 
cities throughout the United States. In each case there is the 
supposition that such an inquiry or investigation will measure the 
efficiency of the schools. It has not always been clear, either to 
those making the survey, or to those who read the reports, that three 
distinct types of measurement have been employed, or three sets of 
standards or tests appHed. It is possible to characterize each investi- 
gation, or each part of some of the larger surveys, by one of the three 
following methods of measurement — ffist, measurement by personal 
opinion; second, measurement by comparison; or third, measurement 
by more or less well-estabhshed standards or units. 

Measurement by personal opinion is valuable in just the degree in 
which the person passing the judgment is, by training and experience, 
quaHfied to give an inteUigent opinion. Such personal judgments 
have frequently suggested comparisons with other communities, and 
have at times, no doubt, been based upon more or less well-estab- 
lished standards. The chief characteristic of this type of report, 
however, is found in the fact that the author does not feel that it is 
necessary either to appeal to a painstaking comparison with other 
similar situations or to state the standards which he uses in passing 
his judgment. Often the individual who is expressing a personal 
opinion seeks to give dignity to his statements by saying that he 
speaks in terms of facts. In effect, his argument is that the situation 
as he sees it, and as he has described it, leads inevitably to a conclu- 
sion with respect to the strength or weakness of the school system 
that has come under his observation. Of course, no such appeal to 
facts can modify the situation. Unless careful comparisons have 
been instituted, or commonly accepted standards apphed in passing 
the judgment, the opinion expressed in the hght of the so-caUed facts 
which have been discovered remains simply an opinion. 

3 



4 MEASUEING THE EFFICIENCY OP SCHOOLS. 

Measurement by comparison is based upon the fundamental idea 
that the common practice is the result of the judgment of many men 
who have attempted to solve the same or very similar problems. In 
reports which have used the method of measurement by comparison, 
the most common practice is used as the standard to which each local 
situation is referred. Such comparisons have been made with regard 
to expenditures, the progress and classification of children through 
the grades of the school system, the amount of time devoted to school 
subjects, supervisory provision, teacher training, tenure, and the 
like. In the derivation of standards of efficiency, it will always be 
necessary to employ the comparative method. Any adequate deriva- 
tion of standards wiU, however, involve much more than comparison. 
Measurement in any field is not successful merely because we are 
able to say that one quantity is more or less than another. It is 
only when we have a measuring stick which enables us to describe 
all of the quantities with which we deal in terms of definitely deter- 
mined units that we can claim to have any adequate method of 
measurement. 

We are only beginning to have measurement undertaken in terms 
of standards or units which are, or which may become, commonly 
recognized. Such standards will undoubtedly be developed by 
means of applying scientifically derived scales of measurement to 
many systems of schools. From such measurements it will be pos- 
sible to describe accurately the accomplishment of children and to 
derive a series of standards which will be applicable to varying groups 
of children and to different social demands. 

Standards of accomplishment will always be stated in terms of 
group measurements. For example, we will not demand that aU 
children in a given grade be able to write with a certain speed and 
with a certain degree of excellence, nor that they all be able to per- 
form a certain number of operations in arithmetic with a fixed speed. 
We shafi, rather, measure the abilities of the group in terms of a cen- 
tral tendency, possibly the median or mode, and in terms of varia- 
bility from this most common or median ability. The derivation of 
standards, and their application to school situations, does not mean 
that we shall attempt to make all children alike, or to secure the same 
product in every situation. It will be possible, however, for one who 
has some appreciation of statistical method to compare groups of 
children, either within the same school system or in separate systems 
of schools, with respect to any ability or quality which they may 
possess with even greater assurance than we have any right to have 
in comparing two individuals. 

We may expect to develop standards or tests of efficiency in the 
several different fields, or with respect to the several different ele- 
ments which constitute a school system. It will not be wise to 



MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 5 

attempt to measure one element in the situation out of relation to 
others, since each part of a school system is not only related to but 
in some measure determines the efficiency of every other part. For 
example, we might consider the problems of business administration 
as distinct, and yet we know that successful business administration 
will determine in no small degree the efficiency of work done in class- 
rooms. It is only when builduigs are properly constructed, lighted, 
and ventilated, when supplies of the right sort are purchased and 
properly distributed, that we can expect to do satisfactory work. In 
like manner, the accomplishment of groups of children in the several 
subjects which we teach, and the number of promotions or nonpro- 
motions, may be determined in considerable measure by the enforce- 
ment of the compulsory-education law. In any attempt to measure 
the efficiency of a system of schools it will therefore be necessary to 
include in such a survey all of the problems commonly considered 
under the head of business administration, educational organization, 
the recruiting of the teaching corps, and the accomplishment of 
children. It is not probable that it will ever be possible to establish 
a single standard or unit of measurement the application of which 
may be thought to determine the efficiency of a school system. 

The business management of a system of schools is to be judged by 
the adequacy of the system of accounting and of reporting which is 
used, just to the degree that such records are a measure of business 
efficiency in other lines of human endeavor. In so far as we have 
commonly accepted standards for school buildings, one may judge 
of the efficiency of the school plant. Efficiency may further be deter- 
mined by the degree to which the business management has succeeded 
in standardizing supplies and equipment to the end that waste is 
eliminated. It can not be too strongly urged that neither expendi- 
ture per unit of population nor expenditure per pupil measures the 
efficiency of a school system. The question is always not the amount 
spent, but the return secured for the money expended. The develop- 
ment of standards in business administration will be made possible 
when we have more adequate reporting in this field. Any compara- 
tive study which might lead to the development of standards of effi- 
ciency can be made only upon the basis of a large degree of uniformity 
in accounting and in reporting fiscal statistics. 

From the standpoint of the enforcement of compulsory education, 
which is in effect putting children in touch with the education which 
we provide for them, the efficiency of a system of public education is 
measured by the ratio of the number of children in school to the num- 
ber of children in the community who ought legally to be in attend- 
ance. If legal restrictions, control by agencies outside of the school 
system, or the lack of funds render impossible the enforcement of the 
compulsory education law, one can not charge that those who are 



6 MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 

responsible for the administration of public education are inefficient. 
It is not probable that any city of considerable size can hope for effi- 
ciency in this respect without the establishment of a continuing per- 
manent census. 

Efficiency in school organization demands that children be differ- 
entiated with respect to their mental, physical, and moral capacities. 
It is relatively simple by physical examination to determine the need 
for classes for the tubercular, the blind, the deaf, and the crippled. 
The fact that special types of education must be provided for these 
several groups is easily established. It is not quite so simple to deter- 
mine the adequacy of the means or methods employed in the classes 
in which these children are found. We may, however, expect in the 
light of further experience with classes for these children to develop 
standards as adequate as those which we apply to groups of normal 
children. 

Children who are mentally defective can be discovered by tests 
which are more or less commonly accepted. The Binet-Simon tests 
are being appUed throughout the United States for this purpose. It 
is probably not more difficult to discover children of superior ability, 
and it would seem just as legitimate to judge of the efficiency with 
respect to school organization of a school system in terms of the pro- 
vision made for supernormal children as in terms of special classes 
for defectives. 

Moral delinquency demands special treatment. We judge the effi- 
ciency of the organization of a school system not infrequently by the 
provision which is made for those who are habitually truant or who 
are incorrigible. We should more frequently judge of the efficiency 
of schools which attempt to reform the morally delinquent in terms 
of the later activities of the individuals placed in these special schools. 
We may claim to have reformed a boy or girl only when we know, 
because of our careful system of following up these special cases, that 
they do not revert to those practices which we originally sought to 
eliminate. 

We are coming to recognize the need for a differentiated curric- 
ulum for children who have finished their elementary school course. 
It is not easy in the newer types of industrial, household arts, agri- 
cultural, or trade education, to determine the needs of the community 
nor the special aptitudes of children. Any adequate solution of the 
problem of vocational training will necessitate careful vocational 
surveys and the largest possible opportunity for the discovery of the 
special abilities of children. It is interesting to note that many of 
those who are studying the problem of vocational guidance are coming 
to speak more in terms of the discovery of special ability m order 
that adequate training may be given than in terms of places for 
children to work 



"WI'IV ip 



MEASUEING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 7 

One of tile most common tests which has been applied to school 
systems during recent years is found in the percentages of retarda- 
tion, elimination, promotion, and nonpromotion. These statistics do 
not, either singly or taken all together, measure the efficiency of the 
school system. They are rather symptomatic. A large degree of 
elimination or retardation is significant mainly in showing the need 
for changes in curricula or in school organization, in calling attention 
to a lax enforcement of the compulsory education law, or in showing 
the need for modifications in standards employed by the school sys- 
tem. We shall, of course, continue to follow closely the statistics of 
elimination, retardation, acceleration, and promotion. Ev^ery com- 
petent administrator will introduce cumulative record cards which 
will enable him to trace accurately the history of ail children through- 
out their school course. Such information wili always be valuable^ 
even indispensable, to one who would study carefully a school situa- 
tion. We shall have gained greatly, however, when we learn to con- 
sider these facts as symptoms rather than as final measures of 
efficiency. 

It has been suggested that the efficiency of schools be measured in 
terms of medical inspection, dental inspection and treatment, the 
provision for playgrounds and recreation, the satisfaction of chil- 
dren's needs in terms of meals and clothing, and the provision for 
the education of youth and adults. It is unfair to judge a school 
system as efficient or inefficient in terms of any one of these activities, 
except as the community concerned has recognized these activities 
as belonging to the school. If the social group has determined that 
these fimctions shall be added to those commonly belongtug to the 
school as an institution, then it will be possible to measure the effi- 
ciency of each of these lines of endeavor by standards which we may 
hope to derive. 

Considerable progress has been made in recent years in measuring 
the accomplishment of children in the subjects which are taught in 
our schools. The problem here is to come to recognize the necessity 
for group measurements and group standards. Such measurements, 
will involve the idea of progressive increase in achievement and of 
central tendencies and variability within the group. Often such. 
tests of efficiency will be most significant in comparing the units of a 
single school system. The work of Stone and Curtis in arithmetic, 
the scales for measuring the quality of merit in handwriting by 
Thorndike and Ayres, and the scale for measuring English compo- 
sition by Hillegas, are especially noteworthy. 

Possibly the most satisfactory method of measuring the efficiency 
of a teacher is to be found in the evaluation of her work as indicated 
by the growth and development of the children with whom she 
comes in contact. Such a method of measurement would be open ta 



iinasiaea^ 



8 MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 

the objection that groups of children differ greatly in capacity, and 
that therefore tlie achievements of several different groups of children 
during any given period would not, after all, measure the ability of 
the teachers who taught them. Administrative and supervisory 
officers constantly pass judgment upon the work of teachers and 
rate them without any such painstaking method as has been sug- 
gested. Any adequate scheme of measuring the efficiency of teachers 
must take into account those qualities which make for success, and 
must allow weight to each of these several qualities in proportion to 
their importance. Such a schedule has been prepared by Prof. 
E. C. Elliott, and is issued by the State Department of Education 
at Madison, Wis., as an "outline of a tentative scheme for the 
measurement of teaching efficiency." 

The more we attempt to establish standards and tests the more 
insistent we will have to be that our practice be carefully described 
in the records which are made by teachers and supervisory officers, 
^ch material will be most significant for school systems which have 
organized as a part of their administrative system a bureau of investi- 
gation. Indeed, the administrative or supervisory officer of the 
future may be expected to act largely in terms of measurements 
which enable him to judge accurately of the efficiency of any element 
or part of the school system of which he has charge. We may 
expect that a group of capable investigators will work under the 
direction of the superintendent of schools to the end that he and the 
community which he serves may have constantly available the most 
adequate information possible with respect to the efficiency of the 
school system. 

It may not be claimed that the measurement of the several parts 
or elements of a school system necessarily indicates the efficiency 
of those charged with the administration of our schools. It may be 
that a school system is inefficient because a community is relatively 
poor, or unusually lacking in progressive leadership. Unusual 
facilities for the development of a most excellent system of schools 
may be provided by virtue of the superior intelligence and the large 
resources of the population of another school unit. The most 
signfficant measure of efficiency is progressive development or 
improvement within the system of schools measured. 

Greater progress will be made in the establishment of standards 
and tests, and in the development of more adequate measurements 
of the efficiency of school systems, when we establish a committee, 
a board, or commission on school efficiency. It is of the utmost 
importance that this committee or board be representative of the 
most significant scholarship and of the best administrative practice 
known to our profession. This body should be constituted by the 
National Council of Education. Its functions should be as follows: 



i)j<9E2£3:^!^:u£iuc'^;£&ii£ 



MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. . 9 

1. It should offer encouragement, expert advice, and opportunity 
for publication to those engaged in scientific work in the direction 
of the derivation of scales of measurement, in the application of 
such scales or units to actual school situations, or in the establish- 
ment in any other manner of standards in relation to public edu- 
cation. 

2. It should offer expert advice with respect to the nature and 
scope of surveys, investigations, or inquiries to be undertaken in 
any part of the United States. 

3. It should offer to members of our profession engaged in admin- 
istrative work the opportunity to secure a scientific investigation of 
their systems of schools under the direction of professional experts- 
As the situation is at present, we have the anomaly which permits a 
politician, an interested book-publishing company, or a personal 
enemy of the chief administrative officer of a school system to attempt 
to secure the removal of such an officer without any adequate measure 
of the efficiency of the school system or the accomplishment of the 
man whose work is called in question. The establishment of a body 
of professional experts would in time render such action impossible. 

For the work of a committee or board such as is contemplated 
in the statements made above, a liberal appropriation should be 
made by the National Education Association, and it is possible that 
further endowment should be sought in order to make possible those 
activities which will mean the increase in efficiency of our system of 
public education and the establishment of our profession. 

There is appended a bibliography of 339 titles pertinent to the sub- 
ject of which the report of the committee treats. This bibliography 
was prepared for the committee by Dr. I. L. KandeJ. 

G. D. Strayer, Chairman. 

Wm. H. Maxwell, 

E. C. Elliott, 

E. L. Thorndike, 

J. H. Van Sickle, 

E. P. Cubberley, 

ComTYiittee. 

81764°— 13 2 



•WS!HHSaMB!S--B!BSHB 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



MEASUREMENT IN EDUCATION. 



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1^^ 



12 



MEASUEING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 



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Watldns, S. H. The test method in education. Journal of education (London) i 

43: 727-29. 1 

Weiss, A. P. On methods of mental measurement, especially in school and college. i 

Journal of educational psychology, 2: 555-63. 
Whipple, G. M. Manual of mental and physical tests. 
Winteler, J. Experimentelle beitrage zu einer begabungslehre. Experim. padag., 

2: 1-48; 147-247. ;j 

Wissler, C. Correlation of mental and physical tests. Psychological review. Mon. | 

suppL, no. 16, June, 1910. | 

Ziehen, T. Die prinzipien und methoden der intelligenzprufung. Berlin, 1911. i 

EETARDATION AND ELIMINATION. | 

Apert, E. Les enfants retardataires. Paris, 1902. I 

Ayres, L. P. The identification of the misfit child. American school board journal, p 

1911. I 

Irregular attendance — a cause of retardation. Psychological clinic, 3: 1-8. Ij 

Laggards in our schools: A study of retardation and elimination in city school | 

systems. New York, 1909. 3 
The money cost of repetition versus the money saving through acceleration. \ 

American school board journal, January, 1912. 

The money cost of the repeater. Psychological clinic, 3: 49-57. 

The relation between entering age and subsequent progress among school chil- ^ 

dren. Education, February, 1912. \ 
The relative responsibility of school and society for the over-age child. Jour- i 

nal of education (Boston), December, 1911. ( 
A simple system for discovering some factors influencing nonpromotion. 3 

Psychological clinic, 4: 189-92. 

Some factors affecting grade distribution. Psychological clinic, 2: 121-33. 



Blan, L. B. Retardation of elementary school pupils. Educational review, 40: 51-64. 
A special study of the incidence of retardation. Teachers' College, Columbia 

University. Contributions to education, no. 4, 1911. 
Book, W. F. Why pupils drop out of the high school. Pedagogical seminary, 

11: 204-32. 



^M 



14 MEASUEING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 

Boston. School committee. Causes of retardation. Minutes ... December 31, 1906 

See also Psychological clinic, 2: 55-56. 
Bryan, J. E. A method for determining the extent and caiises of retardation in a city 

school system. Psychological clinic, 1: 41-52. 

— Statistics of retardation from a superintendent's office. Philadelphia, 1909. 

Camden, N. J. Board of education. Report, 1905-6. Percentage of promotions of 

half-day and all-day pupils. 
Cameron, N. A new method of determining rate of progress in a small school system. 

Psychological clinic, 5: 251-64. 
Chicago. Board of education. Percentage of promotions and percentage of attend- 
ances. In its Annual report, 1908. p. 299-303. 
Ciucinnati. Board of education. Retardation, promotion, etc. In its Annual report, 

1907. 

Retarded schools. In its Annual report, 1909. p. 55-57. 

Cleveland, Ohio. Superintendent of schools. Measuring efficiency and progress. In 

his Annual report, 1909. p. 23-51. 

Retarded and repeating pupils. In his Annual report, 1910. 

Columbus, Ohio. Board of education. Average age of pupils in the respective grades, 

1904-1908. In its Annual report, 1908. p. 77. 
Comman, 0. P. Retardation of the pupils of five city school systems. Psychological 

clinic, 1: 245-57. 
Cummings, E.P. Elimination and retention of pupils. Psychological clinic, 5: 20-23. 
Dearborn, W. F. Qualitative elimination from school. Elementary school teacher, 

10: 1-13. 
Erie, Pa. Board of education. Retardation in the Erie public schools. InitsJiiejmial 

report, 1907-8—1908-9. p. 88-100. 
Falkner, R. P. Elimination of pupils from school. A review of recent investigations. 

Psychological clinic, 2: 255-75. 

The fundamental expression of retardation. Psychological clinic, 4: 213-20. 

Retardation: Its significance and its measurement. Educational review, 

38: 122-31. 

Some further considerations upon the retardation of the pupils of five city 



school systems. Psychological clinic, 2: 57-74. 
Fenchtwangler, A. Warum kommen viele kinder in der schule nicht vorwarts? 

Langensalza, 1908. 
Gard, W. L. Some relations between physical defects and mental retardation. Ohio 

teacher, 29: 385-91. 
Gayler, G. W. Age and grade of school children. American school board journal, 

38: 4-5. 
Retardation and elimination in graded and rural schools. Psychological clinic, 

4: 40-45, 79-82. 
Greenwood, J. M. Retardation of pupils in their studies and how to minimize it. 

Educational review, 37: 342-48. 
Gulick, L. H. Why 250,000 children quit school. The yearly army that drops out 

of line — standard too high and teachers too dull. World's work, 20: 13285-89. 
Harrisburg, Pa. School board. Retardation of pupils. In its Annual report, 1909. 

p. 40-45. 
Heeter, S. L. The lagging half in our schools. Minnesota educational association. 

Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1909. p. 46-53. 
Huey, E. B. Retardation and the mental examination of retarded children. Journal 

of psycho-asthenics, 15. 
Indiana. State association of town and city superintendents. Report of committee 

on delinquent and dependent children, including truancy, juvenile courts, and 

poor relief . Statistics of retardation. Franklin, Ind., 1908. 
See also Psychological clinic, 2:224; 3:86-88. 



MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 15 

Johnson, R. L. Irregular attendance in the primary grades. Psychological clinic, 
3:89-95. 

Jones, W. F. An experimental-critical study of the problem of grading and promotion. 
Psychological clinic, 5: 63-95, 99-120. 

Keyes, C. H. Progress through the grades of city schools. A study of acceleration 
and arrest. New York, 1911. 

Lurton, F. E. Retardation in fifty-five western towns. Journal of educational psy- 
chology, 3: 327-30. 

Retardation statistics from the smaller Minnesota towns. Psychological clinic, 

5:13-19. 

A study of retardation in the schools of Minnesota. Elementary school 



teacher, 11: 457-64. 
MacMillan, D. P. The physical and mental examination of public school pupils in 

Chicago. Charities and The commons, 17: no. 12. 
Maiden, Mass. School committee. Table showing the number of pupils in elemen- 
tary schools by grades and ages, and the number of over-age pupils. In their 

Annual report, 1908. p. 48. 
Memphis, Tenn. Board of education. Number and age of pupils in grade and high 

schools. In its Report, 1908-9. p. 23. 
Miller, C. A. A. J. Progressand retardation of a Baltimore class. Psychological clinic, 

3: 136-40. 
Neighbours, O. J. Retardation in the schools and some of its causes. Elementary 

school teacher, 11: 119-35. 
New York City. Superintendent of schools. Ages by grades in the elementary 

schools of New York (City). In his Report, 1904. p. 42-49. 
See also Report, 1909. p. 61-87. Tables. 
New York State. Department of Education. Elimination. In its Report, 1906. 

p. 532. 
Table showing successive grades in New York cities. In its Report, 

1908. p. 580. 
Newark, N. J. Board of education. Retardation and elimination of pupils. In its 

Report, 1908-9. p. 44-53'. 
Oakland, Cal. Board of education. Number of pupils in the grades. Jniis Report, 

1900. p. 105. 
Payne, B. R. Virginia high-school enrollment and graduation. Virginia journal of 

education, 3: 564. 
Payne, I. D. Retardation in the schoolsof Palo Alto, Cal.; A study of pedagogical life 

histories. Psychological clinic, 5: 139-48. 
Pennsylvania, Statistics first to ninth grades. Pennsylvania school journal, 

57: 85-86. 
Philadelphia. Reduction in the number of retarded children in the Philadelphia 

schools, and some causes of retardation (1908). Psychological clinic, 2: 252-53. 
Providence, R. I. School committee. Report, 1907-8. Non-promotion and gradua- 
tion ages. p. 57-60. 
Russell Sage foimdation. Backward children investigation. Retardation; some 

account of study conducted in the New York public schools. New York, 1909. 
Reprinted for the Tenth annual report of Superintendent of schools, New York City, 1909. 
Schaeffer, N. C. Retardation in the grades and the new code. Pennsylvania school 

journal, 57: 422-23. 
Schmitt, C. Retardation statistics of three Chicago schools. Elementary scho6l 

teacher, 10: 478-92. 
Sheldon, W. D. A neglected cause of retardation. Educational review, 38: 1910. 
Squire, C. R. Our responsibility for retardation. Psychological clinic, 4: 46-53. 
Sterling, E . B . Gymnastics as a factor in the treatment of mental retardation . Psychor 

logical clinic, 2: 204-11. 



§•■*—■■ 



16 MEASUEING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 

Strayer, G. D. Age and grade census of schools and colleges. A study of retardation 
and elimination. Washington, 1911. 144 p. 8°. (U. S. Bureau of education. 
Bulletin no. 5, 1911) 
Bibliography: p. 141-44. 

Thomdike, E. L. The elimination of pupils from school. Washington, 1908. 63 p. 

8°. (U. S. Bureau of education. Bulletin no. 4, 1907) 
Promotion, retardation, and elimination. Psychological clinic, 3:232-43, 

255-65. 

Repeaters in the upper grammar grades . Elementary school teacher, 10 :409-14 . 



Twitmyer, E. W. Clinical studies of retarded children. Psychological clinic, 1:97-103. 
Uffenheimer, A. and Stahlin, 0. Warum kommen unsere kinder in der schule nicht 

vorwarts? Der arzt als erzieher, 28. Munich, 1907. 
XJ. S. Bureau of education. At what age do pupils withdraw from the public schools? 

Report of the Commissioner for the year 1894-95, v. 2, p. 1161-70. 
The unsolved problem of school attendance. Report of the Commissioner for 

the year 1906, v. 2, p. 1284-86. 

When and why pupils leave school. How to promote attendance in the higher 



grades. Report of the Commissioner for the year 1899-00, v. 2, p. 1364-74. 

Van Denburg, T. K. Causes of the elimination of students in public secondary schools. 
New York, 1911. 

Wagner, A. E. Retardation and elimination in the schools of Mauch Chunk Town- 
ship. Psychological clinic, 3:164-73. 

Wallin, J. E. W. Rationale of promotion and elimination of waste in the elementary 
and secondary schools. Journal of educational psychology, 1:445-66. 

Witmer, L. The study and treatment of retardation; a field of applied psychology. 
Psychological bulletin, 6:121-26. 

What is meant by retardation? Psychological clinic, 4:121-31. 

BACKWARD PUPILS. 

Abelson, A. R. The measurement of mental ability of backward children. British 

journal of psychology, 4:268-314. 

The measurement of mental ability of backward children. London, 1912. 

Atwood, C. E. The school training of backward children ia the New York City public 

schools. New York medical journal, 86:430-33. 
Chicago. Superintendent of schools. In his Report, 1906. 
Deuchler, G. Uber das Mannheimer schulsystem. Ztsch. fiirpadag. Psychology, 

10:384-420. 
Frenzel, F. Die hilfsschule f lir schwachbegabte. Ztsch. f iir d. behandlung schwachs. 

u. epil., 20:69-82. 
Green, M. B. A class of backward and defective children. Psychological clinic,. 

3:125-133. 
Giindel, A. Zur organisation der hilfsschule. Ztsch. fiir d-. behandlung schwachs. 

u. epil., 20:1-7; 26-40. 
Heilman, J. D. A clinical examination blank for backward children in the public 

schools. Psychological clinic, 1:189-97; 217-30; 258-67. 
Huey , E . B . Backward and feeble-minded children : clinical studies in the psychology 

of defectives with a syllabus for the clinical examiaation and testing of children. 

Baltimore, 1912. 
Loewy, S. Beobachtungen und untersuchungen an den kindern derhilfsschulklassen 

in Meiningen. (Leipzig, 1909.) 
London county council. Report of the medical oflEicers for 1907. 
Maennel, B. The auxiliary schools of Germany. Washington, 1907. 137 p. 8". 

(U. S. Bureau of education. Bulletin no. 3, 1907) 
Bibliography: p. 135-31. 



MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 



17 



Noyes, W. B. An introduction to the psychological study of backward children. 

New York medical journal, 72:1076-80. 
Shattuck, G. B. Grading of defective public school children. Boston medical and 

surgical journal, 148:349-50. 
White Plains, N. Y. An experiment in special coaching for backward pupils in the 

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FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN, ETC. 

Baracelli, S. E. Deficienci e tardivi. La scuola per i tardivi. Cremona, 1903. 
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PHYSICAL DEFECTS. 

Ayres, L. P. The effect of physical defects on school progress. Psychological clinic, 

3: 71-77. 
Cornell, W. S. Medical inspection. Philadelphia, 1912. 



BKJ 



18 MEASUEIISTG THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 

Cornell, W. S. The need of improved records of the physic ' conditions of school 
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— The relation of physical to mental defect in school children. Psychological 

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Elmslie, P. C. School provision for physically defective children. School hygiene, 
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Schiller, H. Die schularztfrage. Berlin, 1899. 

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West, G. Observations on the relation of physical development to intellectual ability 
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Aral, Tsuru. Mental fatigue. New York, 1912. 

Baker, S. Fatigue in school children. Educational review, 15: 34-39. 

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messungen. Veroffentlichungen des instituts fiir experimentalen Padagogik 

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Jom-nal de I'anat. et de la physiol., 37: 625-37. 
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Keller, R. Uber den 40 minuten unterrichtsbetrieb des gymnasiums und der indus- 

trieschule in Winterthur. International magazine of school hygiene, 2: 298-330, 
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Kraepelin, E. Die arbeitskurve. Philos. studien, 19: 459-507. 



MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 19 

Laser, H. Uber geistige ermiidung beim schulunterricht. Ztsch. f tir schulgesund-- 

heitspflege, 7: 2-22. 
Marsh, H. I. The diurnal curve of efficiency. New York, 1906. 
Miiller, R. Uber Mosses ergographen mit riicksicht auf seine physiologischen und 

psychologischenanwendungen. Philos. studien, 17: 1-29. 
Offner, M. Die geistige ermiidung. Berlin, 1910. 
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gane, 24: 401-44. 
Thorndike, E. L. Mental fatigue. Psychological review, 7: 466-82, 547-79. 

Mental fatigue. Journal of educational psychology, 2: 61-80. 

Treves, Z. Uber den gegenwartigen stand unserer kenntniss die ergographie betreffend. 

Archiv f. d. ges. physiol., 87: 7-67. 
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neuen gymnasiums in Darmstadt. Berlin, 1898. 
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kinds of mental work. British jom-nal of psychology, 2: 153-96. 
Winch, W. H. Mental fatigue in day school children as measured by arithmetical 

reasoning. British journal of psychology, 3: 315-41. 
Mental fatigue in day school children as measured by immediate memory.. 

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Some measurements of mental fatigue in adolescent pupils in evening schools. 



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EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN. (SUPERNORMAL.) 

Petzold, J. Sonderschulen fiir hervorragend befahigte. Leipzig and Berlin, 1905. 

Secor, W. B. Credit for quality in the secondary school. Educational review, 35 : 486-. 
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Stern, W. Das iibernormale kind. Der saemann, 1910; 67-72, 160-67. 
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Van Sickle, J. H. Provision for exceptional children in the public schools. Psycho-, 
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Witmer, L. and Ayres, L. P. Provision for exceptional children in public- 
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TEACHERS. 

Bell, J. C. Merit in teaching; New York system of. grading high school teachers. 

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seminary, 12: 239-88. 
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Chrisman, 0. Child and teacher. Journal of pedagogy, 12: 112-25. 
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1911. 157 p. 8°. (U. S. Bureau of education. Bulletin no. 3, 1911) 



20 



MEASUEING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 



Ruediger, W. C. and Strayer, G. D. The qualities of merit in teachers. Journal of 

educational psychology, 1: 272-78. 
Swift, E. J. Teachers and teaching. In Report of the State superintendent of public 

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SCHOOL SUBJECTS. 

English. 

Dall, W. H. Measuring the merit of English writing. Science, 34: 115-16. 
Hillegas, M. B. A scale for the measurement of quality in English composition by 

young people. Teachers college record, 13: no. 4. 
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• English, the need of a new basis in education. Forum, 35: 440-57. 

Thorn dike, E. L. A scale of merit in English writing by young people. Journal 

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Writing. 

Ayres, L. P. A scale for measuring the quality of handwriting of school children. 

New York, 1912. 
Binet, A. La sexe de Tecritiu-e. Revue, 17-34, October, 1903. 
Downey, J. E. Control processes in modified handwriting: an experimental study. 

Psychological review. Monograph supplement, 9: no. 1. 
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Gesell, A. L. Accin-acy in handwriting as related to school intelligence and sex. 

American journal of psychology, 17: 394-405. 
IQng, I. and Johnson, H. The writing abilities of the elementary and grammar 

school pupils of a city school system measured by the Ayres scale. Joiunal of 

educational psychology, 3: 514-20. 
Thompson, M. E. Psychology and pedagogy of writing. A resume of the researches 

and experiments bearing on the history and pedagogy of writing. Baltimore, 1911. 
Thorndike, E. L. Handwriting. Teachers college record, 11: no. 2. 

Drawing. 

Leuba, J. H. and Hyde, W. An experiment on learning to make hand movements. 

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Leipzig, 1904. 
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Arithmetic. 

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Cole, L. W. Adding upward and downward. Journal of educational psychology, 
3: 75-94. 



wm 



MEASUKING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 21 

Coiirtis, S. A. Manual of instruction for giving and scoring the Courtis standard 

tests in arithmetic. Detroit, Mich., 1910. 
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Rietz, H. L. and Shave, J. Correlation of efficiency in mathematics and efficiency 

in other subjects. University of Illinois bull. 6: 301-04. 
Schanoff, B. Die vorgange des rechnens. Leipzig, 1910. 
Schulze, R. 500,000 rechenaufgaben. Eine experimentelle untersuchung. Prak- 

tische schulmann, 44: 340-ff. 
Starch, D. Transfer of training in arithmetical operations. Joiunal of educational 

psychology, 2: 306-10. 
Stone, C. W. Arithmetical abilities and some factors determining them. New 

York, 1908. 
Winch, W. H. Accuracy in school children. Does improvement in numerical 

accuracy transfer? Journal of educational psychology, 1: 262-71, 334-36. 

Foreign Languages. 

Biuet, A. La question des etudes classiques d'apres la psychologic experimentale. 

Rev. derev., 28: 461-70. 
Libby, W. An experiment in learning a foreign language. Pedagogical seminary, 

17: 81-96. 
Enquete sur les methodes dans I'enseignement des langues vivantes. Revue uni- 

versitaire, 8: 348-51. 

Zoology. 

Gilbert, J. C. An experiment on methods of teaching zoology. Joiunal of educa- 
tional psychology, 1: 321-31. 

Reading. 

Becher, E. Experimentelle und kritische beitrage zur psychologie des lesens bei 

kurzen expositionzeiten. Ztsch. ftir psych, u. physiol. der sinnesorgane, 

36: 19-73. 
Boggs, L. P. How children learn to read: an experimental study. Pedagogical 

seminary, 12: 496-502. 
Dearborn, W. F. The psychology of reading. Columbia University. Contributions 

to philosophy and psychology, xiv: 1. 
Dockeray, F. C. The span of vision in reading and the legibility of letters. Jom-nal 

of educational psychology, 1: 123-31. 
Dodge, R. The psychology of reading. Psychological review, 8: 56-60. 
Erdmann, B. and Dodge, R. Psychologische untersuchungen iiber das lesen, 

Halle, 1898. 
Gill, E. J. Methods of teaching reading: a comparison of results. Jommal of 

experimental pedagogy, 1: 243-48. 
Huey, E. B. The psychology and pedagogy of reading. New York, 1908. 



itm.<a«i;»iiiT5S5i 



S2 



MEASURING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 



Scliwender, J. Die wichtigsten ergebnisse der experimentellen untersuchungen 

liber das lesen. Leipzig, 1910. 
Taylor, J. S. Principles and methods of teaching reading. New York, 1912. 

Spelling. 

€ook, W. A. Shall we teach spelling by rule? Journal of educational psychology, 
3: 316-25. 

Cornmann, 0. P. Spelling in elementary school; an experimental and statistical 
investigation. Philadelphia, 1902. 

<jill, E. J. The teaching of spelling. Journal of experimental pedagogy, 1: 310-19. 

Pearson,' N. C. The scientific study of the teaching of spelling. Journal of educa- 
tional psychology, 2: 241-52. 

Rice, J. M. The futility of the spelling grind. Forum, 33: 163, 172, 404-19. 

Schiller, H. Studien und versuche iiber die erlernung der orthographie. Berlin, 
1898. 

Suzzallo, H. The teaching of spelling. Teachers college record, 12 : 5. 

and Pearson, H. C. Comparative experimental teaching of spelling. Teach- 
ers college record, 13: 1. 

Wallin, J. E. W. Spelling efficiency in relation to age, grade, and sex, and the 
question of transfer. Baltimore, 1911. 

Has the drill become obsolescent? Journal of educational psychology, 

1: 200-13. 

Whipple, G. M. Relative efficiency of phonetic alphabets. Baltimore, 1912. 

HIGH SCHOOL PROBLEMS. 

Dearborn, F. W. The relative standing of pupils in the high schools and in the uni- 
versity. Madison, Wis., 1909. 

School and university grades. University of Wisconsin bulletin, no. 368, 1910. 

■Johnson, F. W. Comparative study of the grades of pupils from different elementary 
schools in subjects of the first year in high school. Elementary school teacher, 
11: 63-78. 

Judd, C. H. On scientific study of high-school problems. School review, 18: 84r-98. 

Miles, W. R. A comparison of elementary and high school grades. Pedagogical 
seminary, 17: 429-50. 

Miller, H . L . Comparative study of the grades of pupils from the different ward schools 
based upon the first year of high school. Elementary school teacher, 11: 161-70. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Bagley, W. C. On the correlation of mental and motor ability in school children. 

American journal of psychology, 12: 193-205. 
Bolton, T. L. The relation of motor power to intelligence. American journal of 

psychology, 14: 351-67, 615-31. 
Bonser, F. G. The reasoning ability of children of the fourth, fifth, and sixth school 

grades. New York, 1910. 
Brown, W. Some experimental results in the correlation of mental abilities. British 

journal of psychology, 3: 296-322. 
Biu-ris, W. P. The correlation of the abilities involved in secondary school work. 

Columbia contributions to philosophy, psychology, and education, 2: 16-28. 
Campbell, C. V. Kindergarten training and motor development. A study of a thou- 
sand children. Kindergarten magazine, 15: 135-42. 
Chicago. Superintendent of schools. Speech defects. In his Report, 1910. 
Chicago parental school . Experimental and statistical studies of truant and delinquent 

children. In its Fifth annual report, 1906. 
Clement. J. A. Standardization of the schools of Kansas. Chicago, 1912. 



MEASUEING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS. 23 

Conradi, E. Speech defects and intellectual progress. Journal of educational psy- 
chology, 3: 35-38. 

Cornell, W. S. Age per grade of truant and difficult boys. Psychological clinic, 
4: 239-40. 

Comman, 0. P. Size of classes and school progress. Psychological clinic, 3: 206-12. 

England. Board of education. Report of the chief medical officer, 1912. p. 64-96, 
225-30. 

Herford, . Uber feststellung und haufigkeit der tuberkulose in den schulen. 

Ztsch. f. schulgesundheitspflege, 22: 687-710. 

HUlenberg, . Die verwendbarkeit der von Pirquet-reaktion zur bekampfung 

der tuberkulose in der schule. Ztsch. f. schulgesundheitspflege, 23: 605-22. 

Jones, C. E. A concrete example of the value of individual teaching. Psychological 
clinic, 2: 195-203. 

Lobsien, M. Beliebtheit und unbeliebtheit der unterrichtsfacher. Langensalza, 
1909. 

Lorentz, F. Die mitwirkung der schule im kampf gegen die tuberkulose. Charlot- 
tenburg, 1910. 

[References to practice in London and Geneva in cases of tuberculous children] ' 
Joiu-nal of educational psychology , 1 : 490. 

Simpson, B. R. Correlation of mental abilities. New York, 1912. 

Smiley, W. S. A comparative study of the results obtained in the elementary 
branches of graded and rural schools (arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, 
and spelling). Elementary school teacher, 11: 249-65, 308-22. 

Spearman, C. and Krueger, F. Die korrelation zwischen verschiedenen leistungs- 
fahigkeiten. Ztsch. fiir psych., 44: 50-114. 

Thorndike, E. L. Heredity, correlation, and sex differences in school abilities. Co- 
lumbia contributions to philosophy, psychology, and education, 11: no. 2. 

Winch, W. H. Social class and mental proficiency in elementary school children. 
Journal of experimental pedagogy, 1: 9-18. 

When should a child begin school? An inquiry into the relation between 

age of entry and school progress. Baltimore, 1911. 

Woodworth, R. S. Social differences in mental traits. Science, n. s., 31: 171-86. 

o 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

(Continued from p. 2 of cover.) 

1912. 

No. 1. Course of study for rural-school teachers. Fred Mutchler and W. J. Craig. 

No. 2. Mathematics at. West Point and Annapolis. 

No. 3. Report of committee on uniform records and reports. 

No. 4. Mathematics in techjiical secondary schools. 

No. 5. A study of expenses of city school systems. - Harlan Updegraff. 

No. 6. Agricultural education in secondary schools. 

No. 7. Educational status of nursing. M. Adelaide Nutting. 

No. 8. Peace day. Fannie F. Andrews. 

No. 9. Country schools for city boys. WilUam Starr Myers. 

No. 10. Bibliography of education in agriculture and home economics. 

No. 11. Current educational topics^ No. I. 

No. 12. Dutch schools of New NethBrland and colonial New York. W: H. Kilpatrick. 

No. 13. Influences tending to improve the work of the teacher of mathematics. 

No. 14. Report of the American commissioners on the teaching of mathematics. 

No. 15. Current educational topics, No. II. 

No. 16. The reorganized school playground. Henry S. Curtis. 

No. 17. The Montessori system of education. Anna Tolman Smith. 

No. 18. Teaching language through agriculture and domestic science. M. A. Leiper. 

No. 19. Professional distribution of college and university graduates. B. B. Burritt. 

No. 20. Readjustment of a rural high school to needs of the community. H.A.Brown. 

No. 21. Urban and rm'al common-school statistics. H. Updegraff aud W._R. Hood. 

No. 22. Public and private high schools. 

No. 23. Special collections in libraries. W. D, Johnston and Isadore G. Mudge. 

No. 24. Current educational topics, No. III. 

No. 25. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, 1912. 

No. 26. Bibliography of cliild study for the years of 1910-1911. 

No. 27. History of public school education in Arkansas. Stephen B. Weeks. 

No. 28. Cultivating school grounds in Wake County, N. C. Zebulou Judd. 

No. 29. Bibliography of teaching of mathematics. D. E. Smith and C. Goldziher. 

No. 30. Latin-American universities and special schools. Edgar Ewing Brandon. 

No. 31. Educational directory, 1912. 

No. 32. Bibliography of exceptional children and their education. A. MacDonald. 

No. 33. Statistics of State universities, etc., 1912. 

1913. 

No. 1. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1913. 

No. 2. Training courses for rural teachers. A. C. Monahan and R. H. Wright. 

No. 3. The teaching of modern languages in the United States. C. H. Handschin. 

No. 4. Present standards of higher education. George Edwin MacLean. 

No. 5. Monthly record of current educational publications. February, 1913. 

No. 6. Agricultural instruction in high schools. C. H. Robison and F. B, Jeaks. 

No. 7. College entrance requirements. Clarence D. Kingsley. 

No. 8. The status of rural education. A. C. Monahan. 

No. 9. Consular reports on continuation schools in Prussia. - 

No. 10. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1913. 

No. 11. Monthly record of current educational publications, AprU, 1913. 

No. 12. The promotion of peace. Fannie Fern Andrews. 



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